Alternative Materials For Aircraft Wings

Alternative Materials For Aircraft Wings For this report I have chosen to research and find an alternative material for aircraft wings, currently the material being on aircraft wings is aluminium alloy series 2000, specifically 2024 as this alloy consists of about 4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6% manganese with traces of other specific elements permitted, and the remainder aluminium.  [1]  The alternative material must be capable of achieving all the characteristics of aluminium alloy 2024, yet be light in weight and preferably within the cost region of materials currently used. Aims and objectives The aim of this report is discuss how alternative materials can be produced to manufacture a new lighter aircraft wing. In order to do this the new material must be capable of withstanding high stress loads, be light in weight and preferably low in cost. Also, manufacturing technique must be looked into with respect to machinability of material, cost of machines, and repairing material. Current materials in use Aluminium alloy 2024 This is used in the aviation industry as it has the right properties required to meet the demands. The principle alloying element used is copper. This alloy requires solution heat treatment to obtain its best properties when the alloy has been through the solution heat treatment process the mechanical properties become similar to and sometimes exceed those of mild steel. To further increase the mechanical properties of aluminium alloy 2024, an artificial ageing process is used; this method of treatment increases the yield strength. Once the aluminium alloy has been made, the properties obtained are high strength to weight ratio, as well as good fatigue resistance. Though this is not wieldable and has average machinability. Due to poor corrosion resistance the alloy is usually cladded with pure aluminium, however, this does usually reduce the fatigue resistance of the alloy. Aluminium alloy 2024 consists of about 4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6% manganese with traces of other specific elements permitted and the remainder is aluminium. Mechanical properties of aluminium 2024 The mechanical properties of 2024 depend on the temper of the material. 2024-0 This form of alloy has no heat treatment (annealed). It has an ultimate tensile strength of 207-220 MPa more yield strength of 96 MPa. This form of alloy also has an elongation factor of 10-25%. 2024-T3 This form of alloy has been solution treated and strain hardened with the ultimate tensile strength is between 400-427 MPa and yield strength of 369-276 MPa with an elongation of 10-15%. New materials to consider Titanium This metal has a high strength to weight ratio, a relative density of 4.5 which is 60% heavier than aluminium however, it is twice as strong. Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties this is due to the oxide film which forms. Titanium is not normally susceptible to stress, fatigue, intergranular or galvanic corrosion, putting or localised attack. However, under certain circumstances it will burn in air, therefore in order to prevent a reaction with oxygen or nitrogen it may be treated with chloride gas in order to form a protective coating of titanium dioxide. Titanium normal alloying elements include aluminium, chromium, iron, manganese, molybdenum and vanadium. Titanium and its alloys are classed in 3 categories: Alpha (A) Wieldable, tough, strong both hot and cold and resistant to oxidisation. Beta (B) Excellent bend ductility, strong both hot and cold however vulnerable to contamination. Combined (C) Combination of alpha and beta with comprised performance, strong cold and warm but weak when hot, excellent forgability, good bendibility moderate contamination resistance. The melting point of titanium is 1668 degrees Celsius and has low thermal conductibility and a low co efficient of expansion. Its high temperature properties are however disappointing.; the ultimate yield strength falls rapidly above 425 degrees Celsius and atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen absorbent above 540 degrees Celsius makes the metal brittle and worthless after a long term exposure. Therefore it is only useful for short durations, high temperatures applications where strength is not important such as air conditioned firewalls. When working with titanium extra care must be taken when making due to its extreme work hardening properties. E.g. centre drilling should be used prior to drilling as centre punch this material would harden the metal, causing difficulty when drilling. Composite A composite material consists of 2 or more different materials whose mechanical properties compliment each other although maintain their separate identities, unlike alloy. The reason the composite materials are used on an aircraft and their strength to weight ration and corrosion resistance. Reinforced plastics are much lighter than metals. If the metal part can be as much as 25 times heavier than an equivalent composite part, however that composite part must be as strong and durable as the original. Therefore reinforced plastics must have very good strength, stiffness and impact resistance. Strength- this is the ability of a material to support a load without breaking. Stiffness- this is the ability of material to support a load without bending too much. Impact- this is the ability of a material to withstand resistance impact without shattering. The types of composites to consider for this project would be, Glass reinforced plastic Aramid fibres Carbon fibres Glass Reinforced Fibres (GRFs) Glass Reinforced Fibres are currently used on aircraft for radomes (the fairings which cover radar antennas and must be transparent to radio waves). The fibreglass is used for reinforcement for thermosetting resins in aircraft applications is available as a cloth in many different weights and weaves as a loose of fibreglass. When combined, the fibre and resin GRF. For applications which require the most strength it is necessary to use uni-directional glass tape. Whereas woven glass cloth has better shaping properties and high strength. There are many types of Glass Reinforced Fibres used, and the main ones used in the aviations industry are: A Glass- standard soda glass has a high alkaline content which absorbs moisture which increases degrading of material and corrosion. This leaks to resins deterioration. The main use for this is for windows. C Glass- high resistance to corrosive material. It is normally produced and used only as a surface matt to reduce cost. D Glass- with a low di-electric constant this type of glass is used for radomes. E Glass- with low alkali content and good resin adhesion properties where used in air conditioning. Styles of woven fabric The most common style used is the plain weave where; the warp and wraft threads cross alternately. The strength of woven fabrics in comprised due to the severe pre- buckling already present in the fabric. Fibres usually produce their greatest strength when they are perfectly straight. Due to the high frequency of over and under weaving of the threads the strength is reduced; in plain weave. This is where twill weave and satin weave come in as it is high pliable and stronger than the plain weave style. This table shows a comparison of the properties of common weaves used in aerospace: Stability ability of the weave to hold together when cut. Drape ability of the cloth to follow a complex shape. Porosity an indication of the amount of resin required to thoroughly wet the cloth. Smoothness surface finish of the cloth. Balance a comparison between the warp and weft direction. Symmetry the weave pattern. Crimp an indication of the amount or frequency of bend in the yarns.  [5]   Aramid fabrics Aramid fibres also known as Kevlar is made from aromatic polyamide, a type plastic similar to nylon. The properties include; High tensile strength and resistance to impact of any composite reinforcing fibre. Stiffer than glass but only half as stiff as carbon fibre. 40% lighter than glass fibre 10x stronger than aluminium Up to 400% stronger than comparable glass reinforced laminates. Up to 20% stronger than comparable carbon enforced laminates Aramid fibres have very high impact strength with the damage confined to small areas. Due to this, Aramid can be used in areas prone to stone and runaway debris damage, so this could be useful for use on aircraft wings. However, Aramid fibres have lower compression strength than carbon, it absorbs moisture more readily than glass or carbon, also Aramid deteriorates in strong sunlight. Aramid is more difficult to cut, drill, sand then either glass or carbon, it also does not give clean edges. Aramid fibres do not resist flame well and burn through more quickly than other fibres. Resin adhesion is also lower, delamination being one of the ways in which it absorbs impact energy. Carbon fibres Carbon fibres are made from carbon and are black in colour carbon fibres were first used on air conditioning in the 1980s. The fibres are manufactures by the controlled heating of POLYCRILONITRILE (PAN), polythene or rayon fibres are pre-oxidised at 200-300 degrees Celsius for 1 hour then carbonised at 1200 degrees the graphitised at 2000 to 3000 degrees Celsius. This removes the hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen leaving long oriented carbon chains. The fibres are sometimes surface oxidised, this improves their building characteristics and sized, this then reduces the build up of static electricity and improves bonding. Carbon fibres are available in forms basic groups and produced at different graphitisation temperature and defined by tensile modules Standard modules (high strength) Intermediate modules (high stiffness) High modulus Ultra high modulus. All forms of carbon fibre are stiffer than glass fibres, however only standard modulus is stronger than glass fibres in tension. The higher modulus fibres are very brittle and are not suitable for general aeronautical use. Aluminium- lithium This is part of series 8000 of aluminium alloys. Having low density, the lithium reduces the weight of alloy while offering strength which is comparable to series 7000 (also a higher strength aluminium alloy made from zinc) and competes with composite materials. Aluminium lithium also has high specific modulus and excellent fatigue and cryogenic toughness properties. The disadvantages of aluminium lithium is reduces ductility and fracture toughness in short transverse direction also the need to cold work this alloy to obtain peak properties and accelerate fatigue crack extension rates when cracks are micro structural small. By using aluminium lithium in aircraft wings will enable low costs flying as it saves weight and fuel consumption costs, also this would lead to a reduction in maintenance costs. Fatigue affects materials after long term exposure to cyclic loading using aluminium lithium is stronger than carbon fibre therefore aluminium lithium can withstand fatigue longer. Aluminium lithium is currently being used on the Airbus A380, and under investigation with Boeing. Analysis Current material The current material used for aircraft wings is aluminium. This material is currently used to construct aircraft wings. This is because this material is light in weight, easy to machine, easy to shape also this form of aluminium is easy to machine in order to meet required standards such as high yield strength in ratio with the weight, and also aluminium 2024 also has very good fatigue resistance. However, this form of aluminium alloy has poor corrosion resistance therefore in order to protect against this the alloy is cladded with pure aluminium, this however has a downside to it as it further reduces the fatigue resistance of the alloy. The advantages of aluminium are: Light weight Easily shaped/cast/forge Good electrical conductor Good thermal conductor Easy to machine The disadvantages of aluminium are: Expensive to refine (must be done by electrolysis of fused salts) Poor chemical resistance (acids and base) Loses strengths when heated Cladded with 6.25mm of pure aluminium, if that is broken, the material begins to corrode fast. Alternative materials The alternative materials that can be used are: Titanium This metal has a high strength to weight ratio, a relative density of 4.5 which is 60% heavier than aluminium however it is twice as strong. Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties this is due to the oxide film which forms. Titanium is not normally susceptible to stress, fatigue, intergranular or galvanic corrosion, putting or localised attack. However, under certain circumstances it will burn in air, therefore in order to prevent a reaction with oxygen or nitrogen it may be treated with chloride gas in order to form a protective coating of titanium dioxide. Titanium and its alloys are classed in 3 categories: Alpha (A) Wieldable, tough, strong both hot and cold and resistant to oxidisation. Beta (B) Excellent bend ductility, strong both hot and cold however vulnerable to contamination. Combined (C) Combination of alpha and beta with comprised performance, strong cold and warm but weak when hot, excellent forgability, good bendibility moderate contamination resistance. The melting point of titanium is 1668 degrees Celsius and has low thermal conductibility and a low co efficient of expansion. Its high temperature properties are however disappointing.; the ultimate yield strength falls rapidly above 425 degrees Celsius and atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen absorbent above 540 degrees Celsius makes the metal brittle and worthless after a long term exposure. The ideal type of titanium to use on an aircraft wing would be the combined (C) class as it does meet to requirements for an aircraft wings. However, the major drawback for this material is when working with titanium extra care must be taken when making due to its extreme work hardening properties. The advantages of titanium are: Lightweight Strong Able to withstand high temperatures Corrosion resistant The disadvantages of titanium are: Expensive Process for forming and joining titanium are complex and expensive Glass Reinforced Fibres The fibreglass is used for reinforcement for thermosetting resins in aircraft applications is available as a cloth in many different weights and weaves as a loose of fibreglass. When combined, the fibre and resin Glass Reinforced Fibre. For applications which require the most strength it is necessary to se uni-directional glass tape. Whereas woven glass cloth has better shaping properties and high strength. There are many types of Glass Reinforced Fibres used, and the main ones used in the aviations industry are: A Glass- standard soda glass has a high alkaline content which absorbs moisture which increases degrading of the material and corrosion. This leaks to resins deterioration. The main use for this is for windows. C Glass- high resistance to corrosive materials. It is normally produced and used only as a surface matt to reduce cost. D Glass- with a low di-electric constant this type of glass is used for radomes. E Glass- with low alkali content and good resin adhesion properties. Styles of woven fabric The most common style used is the plain weave where; the warp and wraft threads cross alternately. The strength of woven fabrics in comprised due to the severe pre- buckling already present in the fabric. Fibres usually produce their greatest and strength when they are perfectly straight. Due to the high frequency of over and under weaving of the threads the strength in reduced in plain weave. This is where twill weave and satin weave come in as it is high pliable and stronger than the plain weave style. The advantages of GRF are: Strength and resistance can be adjusted during the manufacturing Impact resistance Lightweight Heat resistant Will not corrode Able to withstand all but the strongest forms of acid and alkali The disadvantages of GRF are Easy to damage Expensive machines required to produce Requires special storage Although glass reinforced fibres are very good with respect to the advantages and disadvantages, it may not be the ideal choice to use as a material for an aircraft wing as it would be expensive to produce and store, and also there are many types of glass reinforced fibres but not a particular type could be chosen because there is not a material which is specifically ideal and has all the characteristics required for an aircraft wing. Aramid Aramid fibres have very high impact strength with the damage confined to small areas. Due to this, Aramid can be used in areas prone to stone and runaway debris damage, so this could be useful for use on aircraft wings. However, Aramid fibres have lower compression strength than carbon, it absorbs moisture more readily than glass or carbon, also Aramid deteriorates in strong sunlight. Aramid is more difficult to cut, drill or sand then either glass or carbon; it also does not give clean edges. The advantages of Aramid are: High tensile strength Impact resistant Ten times as strong as aluminium 400% stronger than GRF 20% stronger than carbon fibre The disadvantages of Aramid are: Low compressive strength then carbon Absorbs moisture more than glass or carbon fibre Deteriorates in sunlight Difficult To Cut, Drill or Sand Does not give clean cut edges Aramid is a very good material to use, however it is important that when making aircraft skin the wings must be smooth and easy to machine, due to Aramid not being able to provide these key features, it should be used for this part of the skin, however, Aramid should be considered for the leading edge of the aircraft wings, because it has the characteristics required to withstand stone and runaway debris damage. Aluminium- Lithium Having low density, the lithium reduces the weight of alloy while offering strength which is comparable to series 7000 (also a higher strength aluminium alloy made from zinc) and competes with composite materials. Aluminium lithium also has high specific modulus and excellent fatigue and cryogenic toughness properties. The disadvantages of aluminium lithium is reduces ductility and fracture toughness in short transverse direction also the need to cold work this s alloy to obtain peak properties and accelerate fatigue crack extension rates when cracks are micro structural small. Fatigue affects materials after long term exposure to cyclic loading using aluminium lithium is stronger than carbon fibre therefore aluminium lithium can withstand fatigue longer. The advantages of aluminium-lithium are: 10% denser than aluminium 2024 Lightweight 10 15% higher modulus than aluminium 2024 Excellent fatigue and cryogenic toughness properties Higher stiffness Superior fatigue crack growth resistance The disadvantages of aluminium-lithium are: Reduced ductility Low fracture toughness Aluminium- lithium is a new concept within the aviation industry which allows the industry to progress in a new direction, this allows an aircraft to be light, efficient yet have the same amount of or more power to transport both passengers and freight. Also, with aircraft being so light it may allow even bigger aircrafts then the currently produced Airbus A380, and Boeing 787 to be produced. Aluminium- lithium the characteristics required for use on aircraft wings and therefore should be considered for this project. Conclusion In conclusion aluminium- lithium should be used as it has the properties such as light weight and excellent fatigue and cryogenic toughness properties required for an aircraft wing and carry the weight loaded on to the plane hence enabling aircrafts to be designed on a bigger scale in order to carry more cargo and passengers as is proven by the production of the Airbus A380 which is one the largest planes in production giving a higher power to weight ratio. The A380s wing is sized for a maximum take-off weight (MTOW) over 560 tonnes in order to accommodate these future versions, albeit with some strengthening required. The stronger wing (and structure) will be used on the A380-800F freighter. This common design approach sacrifices some fuel efficiency on the A380-800 passenger model, but Airbus estimates that the size of the aircraft, coupled with the advances in technology will provide lower operating costs per passenger than the 747-400 and older 747 variants.  [6]   Reference Books Used; British Airways Engineering Training Part 66 Module 6- Materials and Hardware. Published: 14/02/2005. Issue: 1. Introduction to aircraft design. John P. Fielding. ISBN: 0521657229 Aircraft Design Projects: For Engineering Students. Lloyd R. Jenkinson. Dr. Jim Marchman. ISBN: 0750657723 Websites used: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070926094727.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Li www.soton.ac.uk/~jps7//manufacturing/aluminum-lithium.doc www.keytometals.com/Article58.ht http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A380#cite_note-norris_wagner_book-12 Appendix 1

Industrial Security Plan Essay

Roles and Responsibilities of Industrial Safety and Security Officers Safety and security in the industrial setting are elements that are required for the safety of the plant, its staff, and the public in the surrounding area. As a constantly evolving process, the use of safety and security officers is also paramount in the enforcement of policies and procedures to decrease or eliminate injury or loss. Safety and security personnel are â€Å"responsible for enforcing organization rules and regulations concerning security and safety,† (Fisher & Green, 2004). Each organization has its own rules, regulations, policies, and code of conduct to protect the staff from hazards such as fire, accidents, product tampering, and possible terrorist attacks. Local, state and federal regulations are also included in these policies to increase and maintain the safety of the staff and public. Another role of safety and security personnel involves â€Å"developing measures and action plans for the preventing and responding to cases related to fires, industrial accidents, natural disasters, theft, vandalism and medical emergencies,† (Fisher & Green, 2004). The safety and security staff are responsible for consulting a company’s best policies and procedures to create and enact standards to prevent the above mentioned threats. Safety and security personnel are also expected to, â€Å"gather intelligence information that would assist in anticipating the occurrence of any threat to organizational safety and security,† (International Foundation for Protection Officers, 2003). This would allow the security and safety staff to adequately respond to industrial accidents such as fire or breach of security and ensure the proper emergency services are notified. Maintaining OSHA and EPA Regulations A compliance assistant who works for OSHA states, â€Å"the most cited violations are fall protection, hazard communication, respiratory protection, control of hazardous energy, powered industrial trucks, ladders, electrical wiring, industrial machines and improperly guarded floors and wall openings,† (Spencer ,2013). Before OSHA was created in 1970, work related accidents accounted for more than 14,000 deaths of employees and staff. Nearly two and a half million workers were disabled and new cases of occupational diseases totaled three hundred thousand. With the creation of OSHA pressure on most organizations increased to provide a safer workplace for employees except some self employed individuals, farmers, and government employees. Management is obligated to provide the needed resources and funding for OSHA and EPA program implementation. This allows the personnel chosen by management the authority to maintain and enforce all needed safety regulations in the workplace. Normally a safety officer, this individual finds, prevents, or controls hazards as well as training and educating employees in OSHA and EPA regulations and policies. The easiest way to enforce regulations and policies in any organization is to enact and enforce them in the beginning of operations. Safety officers must then maintain an open line of communication with OSHA and EPA inspectors to maintain standards and note changes in regulations and provisions. Allowing an open door policy with employees is also beneficial as violations can be noted and employees can be trained and informed of changes. According to Spencer (2013), â€Å"That for every one dollar spent on safety and health, businesses get at least four dollars back – and sometimes as much as a ten dollar return on investment.† While the task of enforcing OSHA and EPA regulations and provisions may seem impossible, properly maintaining reports and record keeping can make passing inspections easier and less daunting. In order to meet or exceed the minimum requirements of OSHA and the EPA, following the set order of compliance allows the ability to keep employees safe. â€Å"By January 1, 1991, and by the beginning of each succeeding fiscal year, EPA and OSHA will develop an annual work plan to identify and define the priorities to be addressed during the year. This work plan will include an identification of specific types of facilities to be jointly addressed during the year,† (EPA/OSHA, 1991). Emergency Response When dealing with incidents that threaten the plant or employees such as fire, chemical release, or natural disasters unique challenges are created. These normally require the assistance of local, state, and federal government agencies that demand a centralized command structure. Founded in 2003 as a response to errors in the â€Å"Katrina† disaster, the National Incident Management System (NIMS) is a system that provides the ability for local, state, and federal agencies the ability to work together regardless of the size or complexity of a disaster, (Kirkwood,2011). Using the Incident Command System (ICS), the working characteristics, interactive managing and mechanisms, and construction of occurrence management and disaster response associations engaged throughout the life cycle of an incident are defined. Initially, the first step of the response is to evaluate the total scope of the incident by continually determining the type of hazard as well as estimates of possible damage to the environment, critical systems, life, and property. After these questions are answered the next step, an action plan, is created. The second step requires local, state, and federal agencies to create an action plan that is based on the response plans of the independent agencies and each agency takes responsibility for a different part of the action plan. The plan is then deployed after it is developed with each agency providing their assets to the task at hand and is guided by the unified chain of command through the ICS and the Incident Commander. The Incident Commanders main responsibility is to ensure the incident is handled safely, efficiently, and effectively to minimize injury, death, and so a favorable outcome can be achieved. In the occurrence of a disaster, the incident commander has activated five functional areas of the incident command system: 1. Command 2. Operations 3. Planning 4. Logistics 5. Finance/Administration Each of these functional areas performs specific duties working together as required by the National Incident Management System and report to the incident commander. Operations take the responsibility of managing the  tactical operations of the incident and they direct their activities towards reducing the hazard, saving lives and property, establishing control of the situation, and restoring normal conditions. Agencies such as â€Å"fire, police, public health, public works, and emergency services all working together,† (Homeland security, 2004), comprise this section. Planning is responsible for the collecting, evaluating, and disseminating tactical information pertaining to the incident. This section maintains control of the personnel, facilities, supplies and equipment used during the incident and keeps track of all resources available as well as knowing where all groups are assigned. All arriving personnel check in with this department so that they may be properly assigned and accounted for. Logistics receives all requests for resources needed for the incident and orders the needed equipment such as supplies, food services, communications, transportation, and medical services as required. The facilities unit â€Å"sets up and maintains all facilities needed during the incident such as places to sleep, food and water service, showers and sanitation. Portable toilets, lighting units and shower facilities are included in the facilities units’ responsibilities during the incident,† (Homeland security, 2004). The communications units duties are to make the â€Å"most effective use of the communications equipment and facilities assigned to the incident, installs and tests all communications equipment,† (Homeland security, 2004). Communications is responsible for issuing and recovering any communication equipment assigned to the personnel working the incident as well as maintaining and repairing the equipment as needed. The need for communications during any incident is of paramount importance when dealing with any hazard or incident response. Food services are responsible for controlling the feeding of all incident response personnel and arrange services to do so. The medical units’ responsibility is to control any medical care that must be performed when incident personnel are injured or harmed in their duties. The finance/administration department is responsible for controlling costs and also for the administration of the different departments during an incident response. Disaster Response and Continuity Plan In the event of an incident or disaster and the possible impact to employees and the public’s health and safety, external agencies may be required to assist in lessening the effect of injuries or death. Using the National Incident Management System and the Incident Command System to successfully integrate external organizations into the plan or process is paramount depending on the incidents severity. Event integration of the incident command system begins at notification and, once outside agencies are notified, getting the authority that has jurisdiction to a specific location is the first requirement. This requires providing clear specific information about the event and then developing the incident command structure with clearly defined roles and responsibilities for each responding agency whether local, state, or federal. Depending on the incident and the possible impact to employees and the public, the organization needs to integrate the National Incident Management System into their disaster response plans in a systematic and proactive approach. NIMS provides organizations with assistance agreements and mutual aid agreement templates when incidents occur as well to assist in recovery. Following NIMS guidelines before an incident occurs also assists in preparing and organizing for vulnerabilities the organization may face. The main aspect of any business continuity plan is to effectively allow the organization to survive and mitigate any losses and should be the number one priority. The second should be the collection and security of all business related data and materials. This can be achieved through preparing hard copies of the data, having data stored on offsite devices, and storing data on devices protected from outside environments. Materials and orders also need to be tracked effectively so that in the event of an incident, the organization does not suffer further loss. It is also advisable to have secondary locations to use in the event of an incident or natural disaster. This would allow the organization to maintain operations or to regain operations quicker with lower loss of income. References Fisher R. & Green G (2004). Introduction to Security. Butterworth- Heinemann Publisher Homeland security. (2004, March 1). National incident management system [PDF ]. Retrieved from http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dhs/nims.pdf International Foundation for Protection Officers (2003). Protection Officer Training Manual. USA, Butterworth Publishers Kirkwood S. (2011). NIMs and ICS: From Compliance to Competence. Retrieved from http://www.emsworld.com/print/EMS-World/NIMS-and-ICS–From-Compliance-to- Competence/1$7052 Spencer, J.R. (2013). OSHA inspection prep: Have a plan ready when inspectors come knocking. New York, NY: Headline News. MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION AND THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT (02/13/1991, EPA/OSHA) Section III Article A Paragraph 2 https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_id=238&p_table=mou

Explain Crime Rates Essay

The two theories with respect to criminology I would be using would be the Social Disorganization Theory and the Anomie Theory. Durkheim introduced the term ‘Anomie’ in the 19th or the early 20th century. He considered that Anomie had a major role to play with respect to social behavior. He felt that the level of moral consciousness may differ from one individual to another, and deviations often resulted in crime. Robert Merton developed ideas to establish a link between criminal behavior and Anomie. Merton considered that social pressures caused an individual to behave in a non-compliant or an abnormal manner. In society, an individual had certain goals and means of fulfilling these goals. Initially an individual may choose acceptable means to achieve these goals. However, as the situation deteriorates, he would be choosing increasingly unacceptable means to achieve the goals (Reid, 1985). The social disorganization theory was proposed by the Chicago School of Sociology. It is a situation in which divergence away from the normal is seen due to certain social situations. Any disturbance to normal social life would result in an increase in crime and disharmony. When social organization is present, positive relationship, values and goals also develop. Read more:Â  Essay About Crime Rate Increase in India In the past the social disorganization theory has been utilized to explain disturbance during the World War 1, World War 2 and the Great Depression (Reid, 1985). A criminal case in our local community was a string of suicides committed by three teenagers who attended school. Investigations revealed that the teenagers were not happy with the results they had obtained in High School. Studies revealed that the local leader, who was responsible for the educational policy adopted by the state, had adopted rather tough measures, which resulted in high failure rates and frustration in the school children. As the social pressures were high, the teenagers were behaving in a non-complaint or an unreasonable manner. This goes along with the Anomie theory. Studies also revealed that the other ministries that were responsible for public welfare were not functioning properly during that period. Hence, there was an increase in the social disorganization rate (as normal life was affected). The teenagers committing suicide expressed the dissatisfaction and the disharmony in the society. This helps to prove the Social Disorganization theory.

The Benefits of Marble - 584 Words

Marble has been used in the past and is still being used in the present. There are more applications of marble today since there is a great advancement of technology compared to before. In the past, many countries and civilizations used marble for construction of its famous landmarks and buildings. These include ancient Greece, ancient Rome, the United States of America, India, and many more. It is used vastly in architecture and brilliant works of art (Many, 2014). Now, marble is used extensively in agriculture. There are a very few rocks that have the utility of marble. It is abundant in many parts of the world and its price varies depending on the quality. In all, marble is valuable to the world. In ancient Greece, marble is difficult to obtain but well worth the effort. The tools used by workers were only an iron wedge and hammer. The process involved getting the piece of marble small and manageable enough to be transferred by cart to a mason’s workplace. In addition with the cart, marble slabs require strenuous effort extracting from the quarry using levers, pulleys, and ropes (Witskowski, 2014). The marble was used for sculptures and architecture is white. A famous collection, the Elgin Marbles include marble sculptures and structures that were built in ancient Greece. The collection is now in a museum in London, England., and known as the Parthenon Sculptures. These sculptures were removed from Athens and shipped to England under the command of Thomas Bruce, theShow MoreRelatedThe Marbles And The Parthenon1139 Words   |  5 Pages One of the most well-known artifacts that were once on the Parthenon s exterior were the Elgin Marbles. These sacred marbles were crafted by the well-regarded Phidias, consisting of an extensive amount of Greek ideologies and exceptional artistic impressions. The Elgin marbles were taken from the Parthenon by Lord Elgin and brought to Britain. Hundreds of years later, the Greeks claim these marbles were once their priz ed possession, and demand the return of them. Many may wonder, why let a so calledRead MoreKohlberg s Theory Of Moral Development1684 Words   |  7 Pagesfollow with examples from classrooms today, and from my own personal experience as a K-12 student. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the implications of this theory for educational psychology, and encourage an implementation of it that will benefit teachers, students and ultimately society as a whole. Concept and Origin Kohlberg believed that the aim of moral education was to stimulate students’ development of moral judgment. The desire to research the topic stemmed from Kohlberg’s criticismRead MoreSummary : Mausoleum Of Augustus 1593 Words   |  7 Pagescity of marble.† Inside the Campus Martius, he built numerous key structures to benefit the citizens of Rome, and his own mausoleum gives himself much deserved credit. The Mausoleum was awed by all and the architecture of it was one of a kind. He took parts from many cultures, like the Etruscans, but also from the Egyptians. As described by Strabo, an ancient Roman Author, â€Å"The most noteworthy is what is called the Mausoleum, a great mound near the river on a lofty foundation of white marble, thicklyRead MoreTourism Can Be a Double-Edged Sword for a Country. Discuss593 Words   |  3 Pageswho visit places for pleasure, and the industry that caters to their needs. It can be a double-edged sword for a country to a cer tain extent due to its advantages as well as its disadvantages. The advantages are economic, cultural and environmental benefits while the disadvantage will be environmental degradation. Firstly, tourism is beneficial as it contributes to a country’s revenue. For example, in Singapore, the tourism industry generated about $11 billion annually. When tourists visit a countryRead MoreAutism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd ) Essay1651 Words   |  7 Pagesplaced a marble in a basket and left the room, she would return to the room expecting the marble to be in the basket. Children understood that Sally would still look for her marble in the basket even if a second character, Anne, moved the marble to a box while Sally was out of the room. The children were able to understand Sally’s reasoning because they had developed a Theory of Mind. Both children and adults with autism usually failed to understand that Sally would still think the marble was in theRead MoreDiversity in Texas894 Words   |  4 Pageswhich include physical diversity, economic, and politics. 　　First off, what is diversity? Diversity is when you have a lot of one thing, for example marbles, but they are not all the same. Some are big others are small, some have designs and others are plain. They are all marbles even when they do not look a like. You have a diverse collection of marbles. It is the same with people living in either big or small states. There is no state that is not diverse. They are however states that are more diverseRead Moremasonry1049 Words   |  5 PagesQuestion: Find out types of building masonry - brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, concrete blocks glass block. Find out the difference, benefit and bad points of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and precast concrete. Answer: 1) Masonry is basically materials that are made up of brick, stone, marble, granite , traventine, concrete blocks, glass blocks are stacked up one by one together by mortar to make walls. They are also called masonry units. There areRead MoreHeart and Stone Therapy Essay example721 Words   |  3 Pagesprevent yourself from pain or injury if you consistently and positioned correctly this can result in repetitive strain injury. * It is important to use the correct products, tools, equipment and technique because so the client can feel the best benefit from their treatment and it will not harm the client. * It is important to complete treatment records correctly so that you have on record if the client has any contra-indications which may prevent or restrict a treatment. You will also haveRead MoreThe Unknown Citizen And Wb Auden Analysis820 Words   |  4 Pagesthose depictions have on the individual that they were modelled off and how those interpretations can varying depending on context. In Auden’s poem ‘The Unknown Citizen’ the line, â€Å"To JS/07 M 378 / This Marble Monument is Erected by the State† is the opening line which and highlights the marble muse in ‘The Unknown Citizen’. Auden then creates this satirical elegy to the man whose memory has been embedded into this monument. ‘The Unknown Citizen’ is Auden’s interpretation of a physical monumentRead More Public Art Essay856 Words   |  4 Pagespleasure of seeing something aesthetically appealing on a regular basis. It also makes a town more interesting to visit; no one wants to visit a town with not much excitement. I once went to an art festival in Baltimore, Maryland, where they had green marbles ground up and put into the black top roads. This sight alone made my heart race and made this town more exciting. For towns that may have tourism it could be a way to attract to coming there or maybe even staying. Art can also be a controversial